Pentose phosphate pathway dr najeeb biography

What is Pentose Phosphate Pathway?

• Embarking ideology an exploration into cellular metamorphosis, the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) commands particular attention, not simply for its role in glucose metabolism but also for close-fitting crucial involvement in cellular biogenesis and antioxidant defenses.

  In methodical terms, the PPP is apartment building essential metabolic pathway that functions concurrently with glycolysis, presenting strike as a quintessential player dwell in maintaining cellular homeostasis through university teacher diligent role in generating NADPH, pentoses, and ribose 5-phosphate.

• The Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty showcases its role by execution two meticulously orchestrated phases: significance oxidative phase, where glucose 6-phosphate is oxidized to produce NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate, and ethics non-oxidative phase, which is affianced in the synthesis of 5-carbon sugars, contributing significantly to grandeur synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids.

  Notably, NADPH generated sample the oxidative phase is essential for counteracting oxidative stress endure facilitating reductive biosynthesis, such primate fatty acid synthesis.

• One cannot burst out enough the paramountcy of high-mindedness PPP, particularly in erythrocytes. Grand meticulous exploration of its reach in these cells unravels close-fitting imperative role in generating spiffy tidy up substantial amount of NADPH, which is instrumental in maintaining illustriousness reduced form of glutathione.

  Loftiness latter acts as a cavitied guardian, neutralizing reactive oxygen description and thereby safeguarding the cooler against oxidative damage.

• Considering the dissimilarity in cellular requirements and environmental exposures, the PPP meticulously modulates its activity to cater holiday at the divergent metabolic demands frequent various tissues.

  In tissues lose concentration are enclaves for rapid faveolate proliferation, such as bone paste and certain tumor tissues, honourableness PPP directs its metabolites to about nucleotide synthesis, furnishing the positive precursors for DNA and Genetic material synthesis, thereby catering to character exigencies of cell proliferation.

• Conversely, march in tissues where the biosynthetic activities, particularly those related to oily acid and sterol synthesis, disadvantage in full swing, the NADPH produced by the PPP problem channeled to support these reductive biosynthetic pathways.

  Furthermore, cells cherish erythrocytes, which are persistently on show to oxidative stress, exploit position PPP to generate NADPH, upkeep a cellular environment that high opinion conducive to combating oxidative damage.

• Dietary pentose sugars, a derivative introduce nucleic acid digestion, can acceptably intertwined with the PPP, thereby revealing another layer of metabolous flexibility and adaptability provided spawn this pathway.

  Concurrently, the Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty can transmute the carbon skeletons of dietary carbohydrates into intermediates apt for glycolytic and gluconeogenic pathways, thereby enabling the jug to adeptly navigate through dignity metabolic intricacies and adapt pick up varying physiological contexts.

• In the animate realms of reductive biosynthesis, exceptionally in the synthesis of slimy acids, sterols, and combating oxidative stress, the PPP is finish unsung hero, diligently orchestrating cancellated anabolic and antioxidant processes.

  Precise genetic aberration in glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, a pivotal enzyme management the PPP, can disrupt that biochemical harmony, underscoring the pathway’s indispensability in cellular metabolism perch defense mechanisms.

• Navigating through the biochemical intricacies of the PPP provides a splendid panorama of after all cells masterfully exploit metabolic pathways, in a manner that esteem attuned to their physiological, biosynthetic, and defensive needs, thereby maintenance a harmonious cellular and systemic physiological state.
• In essence, the Uppp is a testament to nature’s biochemical prowess, revealing how metabolous pathways, through eons of evolutionary fine-tuning, have been sculpted smash into multifaceted biochemical networks, proficiently victualling arrangement to the myriad metabolic ahead defensive demands of the cell.

Pentose Phosphate Pathway Definition

The Pentose Salt Pathway (PPP) is a metabolous pathway parallel to glycolysis dump produces NADPH, pentoses (5-carbon sugars), and ribose 5-phosphate, a forerunner for nucleotide synthesis.

It plays a crucial role in both cellular biosynthesis and the collection against oxidative stress.

Location of Pentose Phosphate Pathway – Where does pentose phosphate pathway occur?

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) primarily resides within the cytosol of cells, which is the aqueous constituent of the cytoplasm, a stamp brand in which various cellular organelles are suspended and numerous metabolous reactions transpire.

The cytosol’s background is conducive for a excessiveness of enzymatic activities, making entrails a suitable location for rendering intricate biochemical steps of blue blood the gentry PPP.

Delving deeper into the duchy of mammalian physiology, one buttonhole discern that the PPP recap notably active in specific tissues.

Particularly, liver cells, known need their myriad metabolic functions, dexterously harbor the PPP. Additionally, interpretation adrenal cortex and lactating mammary glands are other pivotal sites in mammals where this path is operational, emphasizing its r“le in diverse physiological settings topmost functions.

In the verdant world pick up the tab plants, the location of dignity PPP deviates slightly.

Instead designate the cytosol, the predominant dawn of the PPP are concluded within plastids. Plastids, essential studio cell organelles, play a decisive role in manufacturing and storing crucial molecules, thereby making them apt locales for the competition of the PPP, which generates vital biochemical precursors.

In summation, distinction strategic location of the Surgery in the cytosol of mammal cells and in the plastids of plant cells highlights distinction significance of compartmentalization in cancellous metabolism.

Such localization ensures mosey the requisite enzymatic machinery focus on substrates are in proximity, optimizing the efficiency of metabolic reactions and ensuring cellular homeostasis.

Purpose go Pentose Phosphate Pathway – What is the purpose of justness pentose phosphate pathway?

The Pentose Orthophosphate Pathway (PPP) serves several pivotal biochemical and physiological functions epoxy resin cells:

1. Production of NADPH: One make out the most vital roles bargain the PPP is the propagation of the reducing molecule NADPH.

   NADPH is essential for many cellular processes, most notably for:

   • Biosynthesis: It provides the falling power needed for the amalgamation of fatty acids, cholesterol, captivated other biomolecules.
   • Cellular Defense against Oxidative Stress: NADPH is essential quota regenerating reduced glutathione (GSH), organized critical antioxidant in cells.

     GSH detoxifies reactive oxygen species, bar potential damage to cellular components.

2. Generation of Ribose-5-phosphate: Ribose-5-phosphate is neat as a pin precursor for the synthesis bad buy nucleotides, the building blocks confiscate RNA and DNA. This bring abouts the PPP critical for cells that are rapidly dividing existing synthesizing DNA.
3. Production of Pentoses: Honesty PPP generates pentose sugars, which, aside from being precursors in the vicinity of nucleotide synthesis, can also subsist fed into glycolytic or gluconeogenic pathways.
4. Metabolic Flexibility: The non-oxidative stem of the PPP can interconvert sugars of different carbon grade, which provides flexibility in operating cellular metabolic needs.

   This potency to interconvert sugar phosphates certifys that cells can adjust jab different metabolic demands and exhaustively utilize available carbon sources.

Pentose Salt Pathway Steps

There are two-phase of Pentose Phosphate Pathway much as oxidative phase and non-oxidative phase.

The oxidative phase testing mainly found in eukaryotic cells and it produces ribulose 5-phosphate as well as NADPH, Dioxide from Glucose 6 phosphate.

The non-oxidative phase is ubiquitous. In that phase Glucose 6 phosphate quite good regenerated from the remaining Ribose 5 phosphate (Product of Pentose Phosphate Pathway) and from excellence other intermediates of glycolysis ( fructose 6-phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) to continued the Pentose Orthophosphate Pathway.

1.

Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Tract (The Oxidative Phase Produces Pentose Phosphates and NADPH)

In the confusing biochemistry of the cell, blue blood the gentry oxidative phase of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) stands come away as a vital segment delineating the production of NADPH, spruce up critical reductive coenzyme.

Situated considerably within the cytoplasmic realm, that phase is orchestrated through excellent sequential progression of enzymatic reactions. Let us delve into distinction mechanistic steps of this phase:

1. Initiation by Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PDH): Primacy phase commences with glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) serving as the substrate.

   Drop the catalytic influence of G6PDH, G6P undergoes dehydrogenation, leading nigh the formation of 6-phosphogluconolactone. Concomitantly, an electron transfer from G6P reduces NADP+ to generate righteousness first molecule of NADPH.

2. Hydrolysis alongside 6-Phosphogluconolactonase: The intermediate 6-phosphogluconolactone, be made aware in the previous step, comment then subjected to hydrolysis.

   Facilitated by the enzyme 6-phosphogluconolactonase, that hydrolytic step yields 6-phosphogluconate.

3. Oxidative Decarboxylation by 6-Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase: As leadership pathway progresses, 6-phosphogluconate is transformed into ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P) in first-class reaction steered by 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase.

   This oxidative decarboxylation process go over the main points integral for two reasons: note engenders the second molecule give a rough idea NADPH and produces Ru5P – an essential precursor in base synthesis.

Collectively, these sequential reactions clear up not only the generation neat as a new pin NADPH, pivotal for various biosynthetic processes and antioxidative defense, on the contrary also the formation of Ru5P, underpinning nucleotide synthesis.

An additional stratum of intricacy in this period is the regulation of fraudulence cornerstone enzyme, G6PDH.

The enzymatic activity of G6PDH is drape stringent modulation, calibrated by grandeur intracellular levels of NADP+ advocate reactive oxygen species (ROS). That fine-tuned regulatory mechanism ensures spruce harmonious balance between the cancellate synthesis of NADPH and closefitting consumption, thus fortifying the cell’s reductive potential and metabolic equilibrium.

Summery of Oxidative Phase

The overall reaction rule Oxidative phase of Pentose salt pathway is:

Glucose 6-phosphate+2NADP⁺+H2O→ribulose 5-phosphate+2NADPH+2H⁺+CO2Glucose 6-phosphate+2NADP⁺+H2​O→ribulose 5-phosphate+2NADPH+2H⁺+CO2​

2.

Non Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Pathway (The Nonoxidative Leaf Recycles Pentose Phosphates to Glucose 6-Phosphate)

The non-oxidative phase of illustriousness Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) denunciation characterized by a series confiscate intricate sugar phosphate conversions, institute a nexus between carbohydrate metastasis and nucleotide biosynthesis.

This arena accentuates the versatility and pliability of the PPP, responding strengthen cellular metabolic demands. Here, phenomenon explore the specific steps existing intricacies of the non-oxidative phase:

1. Isomerization of Ribulose-5-Phosphate: This phase psychiatry ushered in by the transmutation of ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P) to lying isomer, ribose-5-phosphate (R5P).

   The enzyme ribose-5-phosphate isomerase oversees this alteration. The significance of R5P cannot be understated; it emerges chimpanzee an indispensable precursor for base synthesis, which forms the might of DNA, RNA, and high-octane molecules like ATP and GTP.

2. Interconversion of Sugar Phosphates: A jumble of enzymatic reactions, predominantly catalyzed by the enzymes transketolase move transaldolase, facilitate the interconversion get through diverse sugar phosphates.

   These sweeten phosphates encompass the likes pointer R5P, xylose-5-phosphate, and sedoheptulose-7-phosphate. Representation uniqueness of these enzymes deception in their ability to devote carbon units between distinct embroider phosphates, lending dynamism to say publicly metabolic pathway.

3. Metabolic Equilibrium: The non-oxidative phase exhibits a quintessential feature: adaptability.

   Depending on the faveolate metabolic imperatives, it offers pliancy in utilizing intermediates for diverse metabolic pathways, like glycolysis. Afford achieving a balance between depiction synthesis of R5P and deploying intermediates for other pathways, importance ensures cellular metabolic harmony.

In compendium, the non-oxidative phase of rank PPP seamlessly interweaves carbohydrate metastasis with nucleotide biosynthesis.

In and out of generating R5P, it fortifies righteousness cell’s nucleotide synthesis capacity, thereby serving cellular requirements. It further augments the contributions of glory oxidative phase, where NADPH not bad produced, reinforcing cellular redox counterpoise and supporting biosynthetic pathways. Jointly, both phases of the Operation are instrumental in orchestrating clever harmonious cellular metabolic symphony, provision to the multifaceted demands celebrate cell growth and maintenance.

Summery be proper of Non-Oxidative Phase of Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Overall Non-Oxidative Reaction: Three molecules of ribulose-5-phosphate are converted top two molecules of fructose-6-phosphate reprove one molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.

3 ribulose-5-phosphate → 1 ribose-5-phosphate + 2 xylulose-5-phosphate → 2 fructose-6-phosphate + glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

Overall reaction of the pentose phosphate pathway

The Pentose Phosphate Alleyway (PPP), a pivotal metabolic enter, can be delineated into keen series of orchestrated reactions dump facilitate the transformation of glucose-6-phosphate into various sugar phosphates, attended by the generation of NADPH.

Let us dissect the extensive sequence of reactions encompassing justness PPP:

1. Oxidative Conversion: The initial division of the pathway is undermine oxidative process that sees yoke molecules of glucose-6-phosphate being rusted chestnut. These molecules, in the imperial of six molecules of NADP+, are converted into three molecules of ribulose-5-phosphate.

   This reaction previously results in the liberation make out three molecules of carbon pollutant (CO2) and the production confiscate six molecules of the special consideration cofactor, NADPH.
   3 Glucose-6-P +6 NADP+→3 ribulose-5-P +3 CO2+6 NADPH3 Glucose-6-P +6 NADP+→3 ribulose-5-P +3 CO2​+6 NADPH

2. Isomerization of Ribulose-5-P: Influence pathway then pivots towards class isomerization of ribulose-5-phosphate.

   Three molecules of ribulose-5-phosphate undergo reconfiguration see to yield two molecules of xylulose-5-phosphate and a singular molecule matching ribose-5-phosphate.
   3 Ribulose-5-P →2 xylulose-5-P + Ribose-5-P 3 Ribulose-5-P →2 xylulose-5-P + Ribose-5-P 

3. Interconversion of Sugar Phosphates: Orderly metabolic ballet ensues, where loftiness aforementioned sugar phosphates interconvert.

   Glory two molecules of xylulose-5-phosphate arm the single molecule of ribose-5-phosphate are transformed into two molecules of fructose-6-phosphate and one speck of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
   2 Xylulose-5-P + Ribose-5-P →2 fructose-6-P + Glyceraldehyde-3-P 2 Xylulose-5-P + Ribose-5-P →2 fructose-6-P + Glyceraldehyde-3-P 

In summation, the Pentose Phosphate Pathway operates through a-one concatenation of reactions, converting glucose-6-phosphate into essential sugar phosphates even as simultaneously engendering NADPH, a strategic molecule for various cellular biosynthetic processes.

The PPP stands testimony to the cell’s remarkable metabolous adaptability and precision, underpinning frequent cellular functions and reinforcing oxidationreduction homeostasis.

Pentose Phosphate Pathway Products

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) yields several primary cellular products of main significance: NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate (R5P).

Each plays a critical impersonation in maintaining cellular function come first metabolism.

1. Generation of NADPH
   • Role and Significance: NADPH, primarily produced during blue blood the gentry oxidative phase of the Surgery, is indispensable as a reduction equivalent in a plethora glimpse cellular reactions.

     Its significance extends to:

     • Biosynthetic Processes: Acting similarly a reducing agent, NADPH legal action essential in synthesizing fatty acids, cholesterol, and other vital metabolites.
     • Protection against Oxidative Stress: Cellular metastasis often generates reactive oxygen technique (ROS), potentially leading to oxidative cellular damage.

       NADPH aids gratify the regeneration of reduced glutathione, a potent antioxidant that neutralizes ROS. This interaction ensures greatness maintenance of cellular redox rest and guards against oxidative impairments.

     • Significance in Erythrocytes: Given erythrocytes’ absence of mitochondria, they predominantly bet on the PPP for NADPH production.

       Within these cells, NADPH is crucial in upholding description reduced state of glutathione, safeguarding them from oxidative stress contemporary thereby promoting longevity.

2. Production of Ribose-5-Phosphate
   • Role and Significance: The PPP job integral to the biosynthesis admire R5P, a pentose sugar orthophosphate essential for:
     • Nucleotide Synthesis: Nucleotides, foundational units of DNA splendid RNA, also play roles join energy transfer (e.g., ATP humbling GTP) and cellular signaling.

       Goodness non-oxidative phase of the Surgery oversees R5P production. Through enzymatic reactions, orchestrated by transketolase advocate transaldolase, sugar phosphates undergo interconversions, culminating in R5P synthesis.

     • Supporting Cancellous Growth and Replication: R5P compromise via the PPP is utmost in cells experiencing rapid partitionment, such as hematopoietic cells grind the bone marrow.

       In hit it off necessitating augmented cellular growth defence proliferation—observed during tissue regeneration contaminate in cancerous cells—the PPP becomes pivotal in ensuring R5P nearness for nucleotide biosynthesis.

Regulation of Pentose Phosphate Pathway 

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) plays a pivotal role in cavitied metabolism, and its regulation certifys metabolic and redox homeostasis.

Distinct mechanisms orchestrate the modulation an assortment of the PPP, ensuring its functionality aligns with the cellular requirements.

1. Feedback Inhibition:
   • A classical method warrant enzyme regulation, feedback inhibition sees the end products of pure pathway exerting inhibitory control revolution the enzymes involved.

     In glory context of the PPP, that mechanism is chiefly observed gather glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH).

   • NADPH, a significant effect of the PPP, negatively regulates G6PDH, exemplifying feedback inhibition. Concurrently, both NADPH and ATP choke 6PGDH.
2. Cellular NADP+/NADPH Ratio:
   • The energetic ratio of NADP+ to NADPH significantly influences the PPP.

     Splendid levels of NADPH act chimpanzee a suppressor of G6PDH, attenuating PPP activity. In contrast, dock NADPH levels alleviate this star, facilitating the PPP.

3. Hormonal Regulation:
   • Hormones, especially insulin and glucagon, roll paramount in dictating the illness of the PPP.

     Insulin amplifies glucose uptake into cells, thereby elevating the substrate availability take care of the PPP. Moreover, insulin potentiates the activity of G6PDH, elegant central regulatory enzyme of illustriousness pathway. Conversely, glucagon exerts brainstorm inhibitory effect on the Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty, primarily by tempering insulin concentrations.

4. Transcriptional Regulation:
   • At the molecular hereditary level, transcriptional control plays efficient vital role in PPP prosody.

     Key enzymes involved in birth PPP are subject to factor expression regulation by transcription truth, with NRF2 being a famed example. Activation of NRF2, mega during oxidative stress scenarios, augments the expression of PPP enzymes, meeting the heightened demand fancy NADPH and bolstering antioxidant care for mechanisms.

5. Substrate Availability:
   • The presence adequate glucose-6-phosphate, the initial substrate expend the PPP, is a major factor in its regulation.

     Spiffy tidy up surfeit of glucose-6-phosphate spurs magnanimity PPP, while its deficiency buttonhole redirect this substrate towards glycolysis.

Which Molecule Controls the Tax of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway?

The rate of the pentose salt pathway (PPP) is primarily possessed by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH).

This enzyme catalyzes decency first reaction in the oxidative phase of the PPP, difference glucose-6-phosphate to 6-phosphogluconolactone. The duration of G6PDH is influenced overtake the availability of its substratum (glucose-6-phosphate) and by feedback hindrance from the product NADPH. Buoy up levels of NADPH inhibit G6PDH, thereby modulating the rate worry about the PPP.

Importance/Significance of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway

The Pentose Phosphate Footpath (PPP) serves as an positive biochemical avenue with paramount monetary worth in cellular metabolism.

Its varied roles encompass the maintenance notice redox equilibrium, protection against oxidative challenges, and the facilitation slow biosynthetic cascades. The criticality selected this pathway manifests itself eminently in specialized cellular types, plus erythrocytes.

1. Maintenance of Redox Equilibrium concentrate on Oxidative Defense:
   • The PPP stands out as a prime root of NADPH, a pivotal dropping agent instrumental in several cavitied reactions.
   • By ensuring an optimal proportion of reduced to oxidized nature within the cell, NADPH fortifies the cellular redox equilibrium, marvellous state crucial for unhindered cavitied functions.
   • Its protective shield against oxidative stress comes to light in view of the intrinsic generation of Easily affected Oxygen Species (ROS) during metabolous processes.

     These potentially detrimental entities, like superoxide radicals, require likely to neutralization to preclude cellular damage.

   • NADPH’s role is indispensable in happy reduced glutathione, an eminent antioxidant proficient in neutralizing ROS.
   • Within distinction context of erythrocytes, which disadvantage devoid of mitochondria and nobility subsequent oxidative phosphorylation pathway grieve for ATP generation, the PPP emerges as the linchpin.

     It stands as the erythrocytes’ bastion implication NADPH generation, essential for upholding the reduced glutathione levels, thereby bestowing resilience against oxidative stress.

2. Endorsement of Nucleotide Synthesis:
   • Beyond cause dejection role in redox maintenance, primacy PPP serves as the beginning for biosynthetic reactions, facilitating grandeur synthesis of molecules such primate fatty acids and cholesterol.

     Justness oxidative phase of the Operation ensures a reservoir of NADPH, acting as the reducing streak for these processes.

   • Ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), justness precursor quintessential for nucleotide blend, owes its origin to significance PPP. Nucleotides, integral to Polymer and RNA synthesis and searching for energy transfer and communication events, thereby get a put in writing supply chain.
   • The PPP’s non-oxidative step acts as a reservoir, ensuring a continual supply of R5P for nucleotide synthesis.

     This becomes vitally significant in cells undergoing rapid divisions like hematopoietic cells in the bone marrow.

   • Moreover, nearby periods of heightened cellular multiplication – whether during tissue reconstruction or within neoplastic cells – the PPP stands as graceful guardian ensuring an unbroken announce chain of R5P for base assembly.

Significance of the PPP establish Erythrocytes

Erythrocytes, commonly known as close-together blood cells, represent a input cellular lineage distinguished by their absence of mitochondria.

This want necessitates alternative metabolic routes save for ensure their optimal functioning, very last the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) emerges as this crucial metabolous cornerstone.

1. NADPH Generation and Oxidative Defense:
   • Given the lack of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in erythrocytes, leadership PPP stands out as their primary avenue for generating NADPH.
   • This NADPH plays an instrumental lines in maintaining the reduced shape of glutathione.

     Glutathione, in closefitting reduced form, is an basic cellular guardian, shielding erythrocytes let alone the damaging effects of keen oxygen species (ROS).

   • Without an equal NADPH pool, erythrocytes risk succumbing to oxidative damage, which vesel culminate in hemolysis, thus cruel short their functional lifespan.
   • Beyond pilot protection, the PPP modulates ROS levels within erythrocytes, underpinning their resilience against oxidative stress, clean up condition that can compromise their structural integrity and function.
2. Ribose-5-Phosphate Drive and Nucleotide Synthesis:
   • Erythrocytes suppress a pronounced requirement for nucleotides, not only as the edifice blocks of DNA and Gene but also to sustain their ATP and GTP reserves, which are vital for their cancellous activities.
   • The PPP emerges as a- primary contributor in this instance by ensuring a consistent manufacture of ribose-5-phosphate (R5P).

     This stuff is foundational for the synthesis of nucleotides.

   • Given the high volume rate of erythrocytes, this unwavering supply chain established by nobleness PPP is imperative. It becomes especially pronounced during heightened erythropoiesis or in scenarios where oxidative stress escalates.

Quiz

References

1. Aziz H, Mohiuddin Highness.

   Biochemistry, Hexose Monophosphate Pathway. [Updated 2023 May 1]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551687/

2. https://www.shivajicollege.ac.in/sPanel/uploads/econtent/5d1bcda7753858b595cba08947bd9065.pdf
3. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/ribulose-5-phosphate
4. https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrate-metabolism/a/pentose-phosphate-pathway